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Pepsin is a proteolytic digestive enzyme obtained from the gastric mucosa of the hog (pig).

The diaphragm is the principal muscle of respiration; its contraction and relaxation drive breathing.

Phase IV (post-marketing surveillance) studies monitor a drug's long-term safety and effectiveness after approval.

Schedule Y prescribes the requirements and guidelines for import/manufacture of new drugs and for clinical trials.

Tannins are complex polyphenolic compounds that precipitate proteins and impart astringency.

'Pharmacognosy' comes from Greek pharmakon (drug) and gnosis (knowledge) — the knowledge of drugs from natural sources.

AB positive blood has no anti-A or anti-B antibodies, so it can receive any blood group — the universal recipient.

Drug dependence is a state of physical and/or psychological need for a drug, leading to compulsive use.

The microsomal cytochrome P450 system catalyses most Phase I oxidation reactions.

All steroids share the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring system (three fused six-membered rings and one five-membered ring).

Humans have 12 pairs (24 ribs) attached to the thoracic vertebrae.

Warfarin is a 4-hydroxycoumarin derivative used as an oral anticoagulant.

Haemoglobin is the iron-containing pigment of RBCs that binds and transports oxygen.

The nucleus contains DNA and controls growth, metabolism and reproduction of the cell, acting as its control centre.

The plasma half-life (t½) is the time taken for the plasma drug concentration to decrease by 50%.

The cell is the smallest unit capable of carrying out all life processes, hence it is the basic structural and functional unit of the body.

QA covers all arrangements — including GMP and QC — that together ensure medicines are of the quality required for their use.

Opium is the dried latex obtained from the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum.

Tetracyclines bind the 30S ribosomal subunit and block attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA, inhibiting protein synthesis.

The neuron (nerve cell) is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

Aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid — it carries an ester group (acetyl) and a free carboxylic acid group.

Atropine is an anticholinergic that competitively blocks muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.

In overdose, paracetamol forms the reactive toxic metabolite NAPQI, which damages liver cells when glutathione is depleted.

The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid (HCl), which activates enzymes and kills microbes.

Bitter almond and wild cherry contain cyanogenetic glycosides that liberate hydrocyanic acid on hydrolysis.

Morphine is a phenanthrene-type opioid alkaloid obtained from opium.

Atropine blocks muscarinic effects of accumulated acetylcholine; pralidoxime is added to reactivate cholinesterase.

The microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme system carries out most Phase I oxidation reactions in the liver.

Validation is the documented act of demonstrating that a process, method or equipment consistently produces the expected result.

Black catechu is rich in tannins (catechin) and is used as an astringent.

Schedule N prescribes the minimum equipment needed for the efficient running of a pharmacy.

Colchicine is obtained from Colchicum autumnale and is used in the treatment of acute gout.

A synapse is the junction across which a nerve impulse passes from one neuron to another.

Enzyme inhibitors slow the metabolism of other drugs, raising their plasma levels and increasing the risk of toxicity.

Cardiac muscle contracts automatically and rhythmically without conscious control, so it is involuntary.

Molisch's test gives a violet ring at the junction and is a general test for carbohydrates.

Sulphonamides are structural analogues of PABA and competitively inhibit dihydropteroate synthase, blocking folic acid synthesis.

The Drugs and Cosmetics Act was passed in 1940 to regulate the import, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs and cosmetics.

The Study Director has overall responsibility for the technical conduct and reporting of a GLP study.

Omeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor that irreversibly blocks the H+/K+ ATPase of gastric parietal cells.

An adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones; an infant has more (~300) which fuse with age.

Aloe contains anthraquinone glycosides such as aloin (barbaloin), giving it purgative activity.

Isoniazid is the hydrazide of isonicotinic acid (INH).

Menthol is the principal constituent of peppermint (Mentha) oil, giving a cooling sensation.

Naloxone is a pure opioid antagonist that rapidly reverses respiratory depression in opioid overdose.

Class D represents high-risk devices such as implantable and certain life-supporting devices.

The Rules classify devices into four classes — A, B, C and D — based on increasing risk.

ADME describes the four processes a drug undergoes in the body: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion.

A drug is misbranded if it is falsely labelled or its label/container bears false or misleading statements.

Connective tissue (e.g. bone, cartilage, blood) supports, binds and connects other tissues and organs.

Eugenol is the principal constituent of clove oil, responsible for its odour and local analgesic action.

Written informed consent, given voluntarily after full explanation, is a fundamental requirement of GCP.

Atropine is a tropane alkaloid obtained chiefly from Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade).

The liver is the principal site of drug metabolism because of its rich content of metabolising enzymes.

Metabolism usually converts lipophilic drugs into more polar, water-soluble metabolites that are easily excreted.

An antagonist has affinity but no efficacy; it occupies the receptor and prevents the agonist from acting.

A non-competitive antagonist reduces the maximal response and cannot be overcome by increasing the agonist concentration.

Type B (bizarre) reactions are unpredictable, not dose-related and often immunological or idiosyncratic.

After oral absorption, drugs pass through the liver via the portal vein and may be extensively metabolised there (first-pass effect).

Senna is a purgative (laxative) drug owing to its anthraquinone glycoside content.

Tragacanth is a dried gummy exudate obtained from Astragalus gummifer and related species.

Ibuprofen is an arylpropionic acid (2-arylpropionic acid) derivative NSAID.

Ginger is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale, used as a carminative and flavouring agent.

Chloroquine is a 4-aminoquinoline antimalarial.

Bioavailability is the fraction of the administered drug that reaches systemic circulation unchanged.

Quinine, obtained from Cinchona bark, is a well-known antimalarial alkaloid.

Nux vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica) seeds contain the toxic alkaloids strychnine and brucine.

Penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics, named for the four-membered β-lactam ring in their structure.

Schedule X drugs (narcotic/psychotropic) require a special licence, storage under lock and maintenance of detailed records.

The catechol nucleus (two adjacent phenolic hydroxyls) is essential for maximal adrenergic receptor activity.

Potency relates to the dose needed to produce a given response; a more potent drug produces the effect at a lower dose.

A free para-amino group on the benzene ring is essential for sulphonamide activity, as it allows competition with PABA.

Skull bones are united by fibrous immovable joints called sutures.

Muscle contraction occurs by the sliding of actin (thin) and myosin (thick) filaments.

The Batch Manufacturing Record documents the complete history of the manufacture of a particular batch.

Starch is a polysaccharide made of amylose and amylopectin and is used as a pharmaceutical aid (diluent, disintegrant).

The DTAB advises the central and state governments on technical matters arising out of the administration of the Act.

Schedule J lists the diseases and ailments for which no drug may purport to prevent or cure.

Salbutamol is a selective β2-agonist that relaxes bronchial smooth muscle.

Efficacy (intrinsic activity) is the capacity of a drug, once bound, to activate the receptor and produce an effect.

Phase I studies first test a new drug in a small number of (usually healthy) volunteers to evaluate safety and tolerability.

The intact strained β-lactam ring is required for acylation of transpeptidase; ring opening inactivates the drug.

The OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice are the internationally accepted standard for non-clinical safety studies.

Atropine competes reversibly with acetylcholine for muscarinic receptors — a classic competitive (pharmacological) antagonism.

Plasma is the pale-yellow liquid part of blood in which cells and dissolved substances are suspended.

Grapefruit juice inhibits intestinal CYP3A4, reducing first-pass metabolism and raising plasma levels of substrate drugs.

Cocaine, a local anaesthetic alkaloid, is obtained from the leaves of Erythroxylum coca.

GMP ensures that products are consistently produced and controlled according to quality standards appropriate to their intended use.

The aorta is the largest artery, carrying oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.

Paracetamol (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol) contains a phenolic –OH and an amide (–NHCOCH3) group.

GCP provides assurance that the rights, safety and well-being of trial subjects are protected and that trial data are credible.

NSAIDs inhibit cyclooxygenase, reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins responsible for pain and inflammation.

Thiopental is highly lipid-soluble; its brief action results from redistribution away from the brain to muscle and fat.

The Second Schedule of the Act lays down the standards (mainly pharmacopoeial) to be complied with by drugs.

The cerebellum maintains posture, balance and coordination of voluntary movements.

An allergic (hypersensitivity) reaction is an immunologically mediated response to a drug or its metabolite.

The medulla oblongata contains vital centres that regulate heart rate, respiration and blood pressure.

The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, conducts air from the larynx to the bronchi.

Ptyalin (salivary amylase) in saliva begins the breakdown of starch into maltose in the mouth.

Organized drugs are direct plant parts (roots, leaves, barks, seeds) that show cellular/tissue structure under the microscope.