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Schedule N prescribes the minimum equipment needed for the efficient running of a pharmacy.

Skull bones are united by fibrous immovable joints called sutures.

Starch is a polysaccharide made of amylose and amylopectin and is used as a pharmaceutical aid (diluent, disintegrant).

Chloroquine is a 4-aminoquinoline antimalarial.

Bioavailability is the fraction of the administered drug that reaches systemic circulation unchanged.

Cardiac muscle contracts automatically and rhythmically without conscious control, so it is involuntary.

The microsomal cytochrome P450 system catalyses most Phase I oxidation reactions.

Morphine is a phenanthrene-type opioid alkaloid obtained from opium.

The neuron (nerve cell) is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

The diaphragm is the principal muscle of respiration; its contraction and relaxation drive breathing.

Opium is the dried latex obtained from the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum.

NSAIDs inhibit cyclooxygenase, reducing the synthesis of prostaglandins responsible for pain and inflammation.

Humans have 12 pairs (24 ribs) attached to the thoracic vertebrae.

The Second Schedule of the Act lays down the standards (mainly pharmacopoeial) to be complied with by drugs.

Ginger is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale, used as a carminative and flavouring agent.

Type B (bizarre) reactions are unpredictable, not dose-related and often immunological or idiosyncratic.

Potency relates to the dose needed to produce a given response; a more potent drug produces the effect at a lower dose.

Schedule J lists the diseases and ailments for which no drug may purport to prevent or cure.

Ptyalin (salivary amylase) in saliva begins the breakdown of starch into maltose in the mouth.

Atropine is an anticholinergic that competitively blocks muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.

A drug is misbranded if it is falsely labelled or its label/container bears false or misleading statements.

Isoniazid is the hydrazide of isonicotinic acid (INH).

Paracetamol (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol) contains a phenolic –OH and an amide (–NHCOCH3) group.

Phase IV (post-marketing surveillance) studies monitor a drug's long-term safety and effectiveness after approval.

Efficacy (intrinsic activity) is the capacity of a drug, once bound, to activate the receptor and produce an effect.

In overdose, paracetamol forms the reactive toxic metabolite NAPQI, which damages liver cells when glutathione is depleted.

Plasma is the pale-yellow liquid part of blood in which cells and dissolved substances are suspended.

After oral absorption, drugs pass through the liver via the portal vein and may be extensively metabolised there (first-pass effect).

The nucleus contains DNA and controls growth, metabolism and reproduction of the cell, acting as its control centre.

Quinine, obtained from Cinchona bark, is a well-known antimalarial alkaloid.

Bitter almond and wild cherry contain cyanogenetic glycosides that liberate hydrocyanic acid on hydrolysis.

The Batch Manufacturing Record documents the complete history of the manufacture of a particular batch.

Pepsin is a proteolytic digestive enzyme obtained from the gastric mucosa of the hog (pig).

The medulla oblongata contains vital centres that regulate heart rate, respiration and blood pressure.

The Study Director has overall responsibility for the technical conduct and reporting of a GLP study.

The cell is the smallest unit capable of carrying out all life processes, hence it is the basic structural and functional unit of the body.

Molisch's test gives a violet ring at the junction and is a general test for carbohydrates.

Tragacanth is a dried gummy exudate obtained from Astragalus gummifer and related species.

A non-competitive antagonist reduces the maximal response and cannot be overcome by increasing the agonist concentration.

Phase I studies first test a new drug in a small number of (usually healthy) volunteers to evaluate safety and tolerability.

An adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones; an infant has more (~300) which fuse with age.

Atropine blocks muscarinic effects of accumulated acetylcholine; pralidoxime is added to reactivate cholinesterase.

The cerebellum maintains posture, balance and coordination of voluntary movements.

The catechol nucleus (two adjacent phenolic hydroxyls) is essential for maximal adrenergic receptor activity.

Thiopental is highly lipid-soluble; its brief action results from redistribution away from the brain to muscle and fat.

The intact strained β-lactam ring is required for acylation of transpeptidase; ring opening inactivates the drug.

Metabolism usually converts lipophilic drugs into more polar, water-soluble metabolites that are easily excreted.

Class D represents high-risk devices such as implantable and certain life-supporting devices.

AB positive blood has no anti-A or anti-B antibodies, so it can receive any blood group — the universal recipient.

The liver is the principal site of drug metabolism because of its rich content of metabolising enzymes.

Grapefruit juice inhibits intestinal CYP3A4, reducing first-pass metabolism and raising plasma levels of substrate drugs.

The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, conducts air from the larynx to the bronchi.

Connective tissue (e.g. bone, cartilage, blood) supports, binds and connects other tissues and organs.

Nux vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica) seeds contain the toxic alkaloids strychnine and brucine.

Eugenol is the principal constituent of clove oil, responsible for its odour and local analgesic action.

Atropine is a tropane alkaloid obtained chiefly from Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade).

Atropine competes reversibly with acetylcholine for muscarinic receptors — a classic competitive (pharmacological) antagonism.

Aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid — it carries an ester group (acetyl) and a free carboxylic acid group.

The Rules classify devices into four classes — A, B, C and D — based on increasing risk.

The aorta is the largest artery, carrying oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.

The OECD Principles of Good Laboratory Practice are the internationally accepted standard for non-clinical safety studies.

The microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme system carries out most Phase I oxidation reactions in the liver.

Tetracyclines bind the 30S ribosomal subunit and block attachment of aminoacyl-tRNA, inhibiting protein synthesis.

ADME describes the four processes a drug undergoes in the body: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion.

Cocaine, a local anaesthetic alkaloid, is obtained from the leaves of Erythroxylum coca.

Haemoglobin is the iron-containing pigment of RBCs that binds and transports oxygen.

Omeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor that irreversibly blocks the H+/K+ ATPase of gastric parietal cells.

Salbutamol is a selective β2-agonist that relaxes bronchial smooth muscle.

Schedule X drugs (narcotic/psychotropic) require a special licence, storage under lock and maintenance of detailed records.

Senna is a purgative (laxative) drug owing to its anthraquinone glycoside content.

The Drugs and Cosmetics Act was passed in 1940 to regulate the import, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs and cosmetics.

Written informed consent, given voluntarily after full explanation, is a fundamental requirement of GCP.

'Pharmacognosy' comes from Greek pharmakon (drug) and gnosis (knowledge) — the knowledge of drugs from natural sources.

The plasma half-life (t½) is the time taken for the plasma drug concentration to decrease by 50%.

All steroids share the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring system (three fused six-membered rings and one five-membered ring).

The DTAB advises the central and state governments on technical matters arising out of the administration of the Act.

Black catechu is rich in tannins (catechin) and is used as an astringent.

A free para-amino group on the benzene ring is essential for sulphonamide activity, as it allows competition with PABA.

Naloxone is a pure opioid antagonist that rapidly reverses respiratory depression in opioid overdose.

Schedule Y prescribes the requirements and guidelines for import/manufacture of new drugs and for clinical trials.

GMP ensures that products are consistently produced and controlled according to quality standards appropriate to their intended use.

Ibuprofen is an arylpropionic acid (2-arylpropionic acid) derivative NSAID.

Aloe contains anthraquinone glycosides such as aloin (barbaloin), giving it purgative activity.

GCP provides assurance that the rights, safety and well-being of trial subjects are protected and that trial data are credible.

QA covers all arrangements — including GMP and QC — that together ensure medicines are of the quality required for their use.

A synapse is the junction across which a nerve impulse passes from one neuron to another.

Warfarin is a 4-hydroxycoumarin derivative used as an oral anticoagulant.

Drug dependence is a state of physical and/or psychological need for a drug, leading to compulsive use.

Menthol is the principal constituent of peppermint (Mentha) oil, giving a cooling sensation.

An antagonist has affinity but no efficacy; it occupies the receptor and prevents the agonist from acting.

The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid (HCl), which activates enzymes and kills microbes.

Colchicine is obtained from Colchicum autumnale and is used in the treatment of acute gout.

Validation is the documented act of demonstrating that a process, method or equipment consistently produces the expected result.

An allergic (hypersensitivity) reaction is an immunologically mediated response to a drug or its metabolite.

Sulphonamides are structural analogues of PABA and competitively inhibit dihydropteroate synthase, blocking folic acid synthesis.

Organized drugs are direct plant parts (roots, leaves, barks, seeds) that show cellular/tissue structure under the microscope.

Penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics, named for the four-membered β-lactam ring in their structure.

Enzyme inhibitors slow the metabolism of other drugs, raising their plasma levels and increasing the risk of toxicity.

Muscle contraction occurs by the sliding of actin (thin) and myosin (thick) filaments.

Tannins are complex polyphenolic compounds that precipitate proteins and impart astringency.